ABSTRACT THE PURPOSE OF THIS REVIEW IS TWOFOLD: TO ELUCIDATE THE UTILITY OF RESISTANCE TRAINING FOR ENDURANCE ATHLETES, AND PROVIDE THE PRACTITIONER WITH EVIDENCED-BASED PERIODIZATION STRATEGIES FOR CONCURRENT STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE TRAINING IN ATHLETIC POPULATIONS. BOTH LOW-INTENSITY EXERCISE ENDURANCE (LIEE) AND HIGH-INTENSITY EXERCISE ENDURANCE (HIEE) HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO IMPROVE AS A RESULT OF MAXIMAL, HIGH FORCE, LOW VELOCITY (HFLV) AND EXPLOSIVE, LOW-FORCE, HIGH-VELOCITY STRENGTH TRAINING. HFLV STRENGTH TRAINING IS RECOMMENDED INITIALLY TO DEVELOP A NEUROMUSCULAR BASE FOR ENDURANCE ATHLETES WITH LIMITED STRENGTH TRAINING EXPERIENCE.
A SEQUENCED APPROACH TO STRENGTH TRAINING INVOLVING PHASES OF STRENGTH-ENDURANCE, BASIC STRENGTH, STRENGTH, AND POWER WILL PROVIDE FURTHER ENHANCEMENTS IN LIEE AND HIEE FOR HIGH-LEVEL ENDURANCE ATHLETES. INTRODUCTION Conflicts among coaches exist regarding the role of strength training for endurance athletes despite over 25 years of research supporting its efficacy and application ( ). Historically, resistance and endurance training have been viewed as training modalities at opposite ends of a continuum with divergent adaptations ( ). In a recent meta-analysis, Wilson et al. ( ) reported an inverse relationship between frequency and duration of endurance training and subsequent changes in hypertrophy, strength, and power. Alternatively, strength training has been shown to have a positive effect on endurance performance ( ). Previous research reports that concurrent strength and endurance training can increase endurance performance in high-level athletes to a greater extent than endurance training alone ( ).
The interference effects between strength and endurance training are outside the scope of this review and have been discussed extensively in previous studies ( ). Endurance in sport has been defined as the ability to maintain or repeat a given force or power output ( ). Endurance training can be further subdivided into low-intensity exercise endurance (LIEE) and high-intensity exercise endurance (HIEE). LIEE can be defined as long-duration endurance activities or the ability to sustain or to repeat low-intensity exercise. HIEE can be defined as the ability to sustain or to repeat high-intensity exercise and has been associated with sustained activities of ≤2 minutes ( ). Competitive endurance athletes need more than enhanced aerobic power (. ) and LIEE ( ).
Requirements for endurance athletes should also include muscular strength, anaerobic power, and HIEE ( ). Furthermore, strength training has been shown to positively influence both LIEE and HIEE across a spectrum of endurance events with greater effects observed in HIEE ( ). Strength can be defined as the ability to produce force ( ). Strength is a skill, which can be expressed in a magnitude of 0–100% ( ). In the current endurance literature, 2 primary forms of strength training have been investigated: maximal, high-force, low-velocity, strength training (HFLV) and explosive, low-force, high-velocity strength training (LFHV).
Previous studies have examined the effectiveness of concurrent endurance and circuit resistance training, but have demonstrated inferior results ( ). Maximum strength can be defined as the maximal amount of force a muscle or group of muscles can exert against an external resistance and corresponds with the high-force, low-velocity portion of the concentric force-velocity relationship ( ). The term “explosive strength training” has been used in previous studies in reference to low-force, high-velocity training (0–60% 1 repetition maximum RM loads) with maximal movement intent ( ). The use of this terminology is misleading, as explosive strength (alternatively defined as rate of force development RFD or power output) ( ), can be developed across a continuum of loads (0–100% 1RM) ( ). In fact, HFLV training has been shown to elicit improvements in explosive ability (measured as power output) across a larger spectrum of loads compared with LFHV training in weak subjects ( ). The ability to improve power output across a larger spectrum of loads, among other reasons, likely explains why HFLV and endurance training may provide superior alterations in endurance performance compared with concurrent LFHV and endurance training for weak endurance athletes ( ).
Thus, explosive strength training performed in previous research on endurance performance is alternatively defined here as LFHV training. Previous research on untrained and recreationally trained individuals has demonstrated that concurrent strength and endurance training can augment LIEE and HIEE, aerobic power, maximal strength, muscle morphology, and body composition ( ). There is also research demonstrating HFLV and LFHV strength training enhance performance in high-level endurance athletes ( ). In a recent review of the literature, Beattie et al. ( ) reviewed results from 26 studies examining the effects of strength training on endurance performance of well-trained athletes ( ).
Their findings showed that strength training is effective for improving movement economy, velocity. ), maximal anaerobic running test velocity (V MART), and time trial performance, and suggested that HFLV strength be developed before LFHV strength in endurance athletes with limited strength training experience. Considering these findings, this article focuses primarily on studies examining the effects of HFLV and LFHV strength training on HIEE and LIEE of moderate to high-level endurance athletes.
The purpose of this review is twofold: to elucidate the utility of resistance training for endurance athletes, and provide the practitioner with evidenced-based periodization strategies for concurrent strength and endurance training for competitive endurance athletes. : 71–75 mL −1kg −1min −1) performed HFLV strength training (mostly 5–6RM loads) for 16 weeks concurrently with regular endurance training. The strength and endurance training group improved average power output and total distance covered in a 45-minute cycling test (8%), whereas the endurance only group did not. Concomitant increases were found for maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) of the knee extensors (12%), peak RFD (20%), mean power output in 5 minutes of all-out cycling (3–4%), and mean power output during a 45-minute time trial (8%) with no changes in muscle fiber area, capillarization, and.
TRAINING THEORY THE TRAINING PROCESS The primary goals of any successful training program are to reduce the likelihood of injury and optimize performance ( ). Before designing a training program, however, the coach and the athlete must understand that training is a comprehensive process that harmonizes a myriad of factors to foster athlete development. Depicts some of these factors that affect athletic performance.
Therefore, the sport coaches, strength and conditioning staff, and sports medicine professionals each play an important role within their own disciplines to contribute to an athlete's development. In addition, the management of external stressors in the athlete's daily life is also an important component in the optimization of performance. To achieve this objective, however, training variables must be integrated in a sequence over the course of the training process ( ). The training process is traditionally organized into 3 basic levels: macrocycles, mesocycles, and microcycles ( ). A macrocycle is a long-duration training cycle, typically classified as 12 months of training, which are composed of multiple mesocycles.
Mesocycles are moderate-length periods of training, which can focus on developing specific fitness characteristics within the macrocycle. Finally, each mesocycle is composed of shorter training periods referred to as microcycles ( ). The tool used to structure each phase of training within a macrocycle is referred to as an “annual training plan” ( ). PERIODIZATION To reduce the likelihood of injury and maximize athletic performance, strength and conditioning professionals should organize training adaptations in a logical manner to minimize fatigue and highlight technical and fitness characteristics (e.g., strength, speed, endurance, etc.) at precise times of the training year “to increase the potential to achieve specific performance goals” ( ). This process of chronologically manipulating physiological adaptations is referred to as periodization. Although varying definitions of this term have been proposed, periodization has been most recently defined as, “The strategic manipulation of an athlete's preparedness through the employment of sequenced training phases defined by cycles and stages of workload” ( ). Furthermore, if the training stimuli are sequenced appropriately, each phase of training will enhance or “potentiate” the next training phase ( ).
This concept, referred to as phase potentiation, is essential in the development of endurance-specific performance characteristics. THE IMPORTANCE OF POWER IN ENDURANCE SPORTS The development of high-power outputs and high RFDs are vital to success in most sporting events ( ) and can differentiate levels of athletic performance ( ). Maximal power output and RFD have conventionally been viewed as fitness characteristics that are less important for endurance sports. This is misguided, however, because there is evidence indicating that average power output over the course of a long-distance race and maximal power output during the final sprint may be critical factors determining the outcome of the event ( ). THE IMPORTANCE OF STRENGTH IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF POWER Power is defined as “the rate of doing work” ( ) and is quantitatively expressed as power = force × velocity ( ).
Therefore, an athlete can either achieve greater power outputs by increasing the force production or by increasing the shortening velocity capabilities of skeletal muscle. It is important to note, however, that skeletal muscle shortening velocities are limited by the activity of myosin ATPase, which ultimately dictates the rate of cross-bridge cycling through ATP dissociation ( ). Accordingly, this elucidates the vital role of maximal strength in the development of power ( ). Simply put, an increased ability to produce force provides the athlete with the opportunity to enhance power production. TRAINING SEQUENCING FOR THE ENDURANCE ATHLETE SEQUENCE AND DURATION OF TRAINING PHASES Originally proposed by Stone et al. ( ), strength and power should be developed by cycling 4 distinct phases of training: strength-endurance, basic strength, strength, and power ( ). This model of strength and power development, in addition to the concept of phase potentiation, has since been supported by further evidence ( ) and is also referred to as block periodization ( ) or the conjugate-sequencing system ( ).
A 4-week training phase has been previously suggested, using the first 3 weeks to progressively load the athlete, and the final week as an unloading period to modulate recovery ( ). Although the duration of the phase is dependent on the relative training intensity, training volume, time of the season, needs of the athlete, and other external factors. Regardless of the length of each training cycle, however, it is important for practitioners to remember that the rate of decay, or involution of training effects, seems to be directly proportional to the length of the training period ( ). Consequently, proper sequencing of training phases with appropriate durations will enhance fitness characteristics from prior stages of training and make them more resilient to decay. In addition, the subsequent training phase can be redirected to focus on another fitness characteristic to further the athlete's preparedness and dissipate accumulated fatigue from the previous training cycle ( ). Although there are a number of schematics to choose from when manipulating these variables, a traditional model fits the previously described sequence of strength and power development ( ). During the general preparation phase, higher volumes of strength training should be used to enhance work capacity and increase lean body mass ( ).
Despite concerns over increases in body mass, for many endurance athletes, the general preparation phase is one of the few times during the annual plan where small increases in muscle hypertrophy can be achieved. This in turn will potentiate gains in maximal strength and power in subsequent phases of training. As the athlete progresses from the general preparation period to the specific preparation and competition phases of the macrocycle, strength training volume is progressively diminished while training intensity increases, as strength and power become the primary fitness characteristics of interest, respectively ( ). Before a culminating event in the competitive season (e.g., championship race), the peaking phase or taper requires “a reduction of the training load during a variable period of time, in an attempt to reduce the physiological and psychological stress of daily training and optimize performance” ( ). After the peaking phase, the athlete transitions into the off-season with a period of active rest consisting of recreational activities in which both intensity and volume are reduced and recovery is the objective ( ). TRAINING VOLUME AND INTENSITY The selection of appropriate training volumes and intensities within each training phase is vital in the facilitation of the desired physiological response.
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For endurance athletes with limited strength training experience, a traditional model is appropriate ( ). These athletes should begin with building a neuromuscular base using HFLV strength training, and after a certain strength level is achieved, LFHV strength training can then be implemented ( ). This is supported by evidence indicating that among well-trained athletes, LFHV is necessary to make further alterations in the high-velocity end of the force-velocity curve ( ). Thus, HFLV and LFHV strength training are both important components in the endurance athlete's strength and conditioning program provided they are included at the appropriate time and in the correct sequence.
How to program a ur2-cbl-cv04. Regarding high-level endurance athletes, however, the use of a traditional model with a single peaking phase is often impractical, as most athletes will compete in multiple significant events throughout the course of a competitive season. Accordingly, manipulating volume and intensity to produce specific physiological adaptations must coincide with this competitive schedule ( ). Unlike the traditional model, after the athlete completes the peaking phase and competes in a key event of the season, further planning will be necessary to prepare the athlete for future competitions of importance ( ). More specifically, if adequate time exists before the next major event, strength training volume may be increased to re-establish strength levels ( ). Conversely, if time is insufficient, strength training volume should be increased cautiously to avoid undue fatigue before the next contest ( ).
EXERCISE SELECTION FOR THE ENDURANCE ATHLETE When selecting exercises for specific phases of training, it is important for practitioners and athletes to consider the transfer of training effect. That is, the degree of performance adaptation that can result from a training exercise ( ). Therefore, choosing exercises with similar movement patterns and kinetic parameters (e.g., peak force, RFD, acceleration, etc.) will result in a greater transfer to performance ( ).
Although some endurance sport movements have both closed and open kinetic chain sequences, in movements such as running, closed kinetic chain exercises should be prioritized as they have been suggested to require greater levels of intermuscular coordination ( ) and result in greater performance enhancement compared with open chain movements ( ). Traditional squatting and weightlifting movements are primary examples. Moreover, squat strength has been strongly correlated to athletic movements that require relatively high-velocity, high-power outputs and RFD ( ). Weightlifting exercises and their derivatives have also shown a strong transfer of training to such movements as well ( ). Practically, these exercises may assist with passing an opponent, enhancing movement economy, increasing average power output, and sprinting the final 100 m of a race ( ).
Considering the essential role that these exercises play in the development of strength and power and subsequent effects on HIEE and LIEE, squatting and weightlifting movements should be staples throughout the training year for endurance athletes. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS Previous research on concurrent training for endurance athletes suggests that maximum strength is associated with endurance factors, a relationship that is likely stronger for HIEE activities than for LIEE.
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HFLV strength training can affect increases in HIEE and LIEE through increasing peak force and RFD. 4story client 3.5. LFHV strength training has also been reported to elicit improvements in HIEE and LIEE performance, however, not all studies agree. When considering findings from studies examining changes in endurance performance and related measures after strength training, it seems that concurrent HFLV strength and endurance training may provide superior results compared with LFHV strength and endurance training for relatively weak endurance athletes. For endurance athletes with more strength training experience, a sequenced approach (e.g., block periodized model) may be more appropriate than trying to improve strength, power, and endurance simultaneously.
A limitation to the current research exists in the design and implementation of training protocols. Some studies comparing different strength training modalities fail to control for differences in strength and endurance training volume between experimental conditions. Another limitation, only controlled for in a few studies, is the addition of strength training without a simultaneous reduction in the volume of endurance training.
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Practically, if applied in an athletic setting, this could result in poor fatigue management and an increased risk of overtraining syndrome. The implementation of an annual training plan where endurance and strength training variables are carefully manipulated will maximize athletic performance while reducing injury risk by more appropriately managing training volume.
Future research should examine the effectiveness of monitoring programs in determining when to manipulate training variables throughout a macrocycle and the subsequent effects on endurance performance.
Article Type: Book review Subject: Books (Book reviews) Author: Capostagno, Benoit Pub Date: Publication: Name: South African Journal of Sports Medicine Publisher: South African Medical Association Audience: Academic Format: Magazine/Journal Subject: Health Copyright: COPYRIGHT 2012 South African Medical Association ISSN: Issue: Date: Dec, 2012 Source Volume: 24 Source Issue: 4 Topic: NamedWork: Endurance Training-Science and Practice (Nonfiction work) Persons: Reviewee: Mujika, Inigo. Accession Number: 312403173 Full Text: Endurance Training-Science and Practice Edited by Inigo Mujika. 151.30 euro. ISBN 970-0-7.
I have always had an interest in endurance sports and have been fortunate enough to work with endurance athletes while completing my PhD. Professor Mujika is a well-respected scientist who, apart from his research work, consults with many elite endurance athletes. I was surprised at how excited I was to review a 'textbook'.
Professor Mujika has assembled an 'all-star' cast of contributors world-wide, many of whom are well-known experts in their respective fields. The book certainly did not disappoint, with all the chapters containing summaries of current and up-to-date literature from leaders in their areas of research. Many of the chapters are authored in part by the 'usual suspects' of exercise physiology, but we are also introduced to a few new experts, who will surely become as well known as their co-authors. The clever organisation of the chapters helps with the flow of the book. The first chapter clearly outlines the requirements for endurance performance and sets the scene for the remaining chapters. The following ten chapters (two to eleven) offer the reader practical information on how to optimise endurance performance. These ten chapters include topics of periodisation, quantifying training load, high-intensity training, recovery strategies and tapering.
I especially enjoyed the chapters on high-intensity training by Paul Laursen, quantifying training load by Mike Lambert, and recovery by Shona Halson and Christos Argus. This may be because these chapters are closely aligned to my research, but I found them to be well written and practical. Each chapter ends with a summary of the key points covered and contains a full reference list. The following six chapters cover the physiological responses to endurance training in more detail. The topics covered include: cardiovascular and metabolic adaptations to endurance training, adaptations of skeletal muscle, and hormonal responses to endurance training.
These chapters take the reader a little deeper into the physiology of endurance performance on the molecular and cellular level. Coaches should not be put off by this, as the work is well written and presented in a logical manner.
These chapters are essential to the understanding of an athlete's response to endurance training. Chapter 18 covers physiological testing and adaptation to endurance training. It was great to read a chapter on this topic that didn't put all the eggs in the VO.sub.2max basket. Drs Pyne and Saunders emphasise the importance of economy of movement, fat utilisation (glycogen sparing) and peak power output or peak treadmill running speed as important factors related to endurance performance. The authors offer options for both laboratory and field testing as well as maximal and sub-maximal testing.
Physiological testing is an important tool for endurance athletes and coaches and assists in the monitoring of training adaptation, training intensity prescription and profiling athletes for specific events. As a coach myself, I am often asked nutrition-related questions by the athletes I work with. I am an exercise physiologist and coach, sadly not a dietician, and as a result I can't prescribe eating plans or dietary interventions to my athletes. I am sure that there are many endurance coaches in South Africa or all over the world who face the same dilemma. Fortunately, chapter 21 covers nutritional strategies for endurance training and competition. The authors of the chapter, Louise Burke and Gregory Cox, have put all the key points into three easy-to-digest (pun intended) tables, which allow the reader to get an idea of fuelling strategies for exercise and recovery. While this information may not equip the reader with enough knowledge or experience to prescribe a diet or dietary intervention, it should allow you to determine if your athletes are adopting good nutritional habits.
The book also contains five chapters on endurance training and competition in challenging environments, including heat, cold, altitude, areas of high pollution and the effects of long-distance travel. Most athletes will be exposed to one or more of these environmental conditions while training or competing and a coach or physiologist equipped with the knowledge on how to handle these environments will be an asset to any athlete. Once again, the physiological effects of these environments on performance are discussed, as well as strategies to maximise performance in these conditions. The book is expensive, but I would certainly recommend it to coaches with some background in physiology and any lecturers who may run an undergraduate coaching course. The book covers all the bases of endurance performance that will serve the reader well.
Benoit Capostagno PhD Programme UCT/MRC Research Unit for Exercise Science and Sports Medicine Gale Copyright: Copyright 2012 Gale, Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.